Linking words in formal writing

When you use it

Formal writing needs signposts. A linking word tells the reader how the next idea relates to the last one: it contrasts, it adds, it gives a result, it concedes. Essays, reports, emails to institutions and academic texts all use them. Conversation uses far fewer, and mostly the short ones: but, so, and, though.

Choosing the right word is only half the task. Each linking word also belongs to a grammatical class, and the class decides what can follow it and how the sentence is punctuated.

How it is formed

There are three classes. Conjunctions join two clauses inside one sentence. Adverbs connect two separate sentences and are set off with commas. Prepositions are followed by a noun or an -ing form, not by a clause.

Adverbs such as however and therefore can also sit inside the clause, between commas: The result, however, was disappointing. They cannot join two clauses with only a comma; that produces a run-on sentence.

Whereas and while compare two facts that are both true; although concedes one fact before stating a stronger one. Moreover and furthermore add a point that strengthens the argument, so they sound wrong before a weak or unrelated point. Thus and hence are more formal than therefore and are rare outside academic text.

Examples

• Tom applied for the job; however, he did not get an interview.
• The bus was late. Consequently, Anna missed the first lecture.
• Despite the rain, we walked to the station.
• Although the flat is small, it is close to the centre.
• Anna prefers the train, whereas Tom always drives.
• The report is short. Moreover, it contains several errors.
• In addition to the rent, we pay for heating and water.
• Prices have risen; therefore, fewer people eat out.

Common mistakes

• ✗ Despite of the rain, we went out.
  ✓ Despite the rain, we went out. / ✓ In spite of the rain, we went out.
  Russian несмотря на and Ukrainian незважаючи на end in a preposition, so learners expect one after despite too. Despite is already a preposition and takes the noun directly; only in spite of contains of.
• ✗ Although it was raining, but we went out.
  ✓ Although it was raining, we went out. / ✓ It was raining, but we went out.
  Хотя ..., но ... pairs the two words, and Ukrainian хоча ..., але ... does the same. English uses one conjunction for two clauses. Keep either although or but, never both.
• ✗ The bus was late, therefore Anna missed the lecture.
  ✓ The bus was late**; therefore,** Anna missed the lecture. / ✓ The bus was late**, so** Anna missed the lecture.
  A comma before поэтому / тому is normal in Russian and Ukrainian punctuation. In English therefore is an adverb, not a conjunction, and a comma alone cannot hold two full sentences together. Use a semicolon or a full stop, or switch to the conjunction so.
• ✗ However the flat is small, it is comfortable.
  ✓ Although the flat is small, it is comfortable.
  Однако and хотя translate different words. However contrasts a whole sentence with the previous one and does not introduce a clause of concession. When you mean even if this is true, the word is although.
• ✗ On the other side, the train is cheaper.
  ✓ On the other hand, the train is cheaper.
  С другой стороны and з іншого боку translate word for word as side, but the English idiom uses hand. It also expects a first hand: use it only after you have presented the opposite point.

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